France

  

The Arc de Triomphe in Paris is a symbol of French patriotism. Napoleon Bonaparte began the stone arch as a monument to his troops in 1806, and King Louis Philippe completed it in 1836. Under the arch lies the tomb of France's Unknown Soldier of World War I.

Fashion styles from Paris are copied by clothing manufactur­ers throughout the world. This model wears an evening ensem­ble by French designer Jean-Louis Scherrer at a fashion show.

The French countryside has many picturesque villages. This village lies in the Perigord region of southwestern France. Many French villagers farm the land or work in nearby cities.

Open-air markets spill out onto the pavements of many French cities and towns. These shoppers are selecting fresh fruits and vegetables. The French value good food and skilful cooking.

Population density - The population distribution of mainland France is fairly even. Paris is the most heavily populated urban area. On Corsica - most people live near the coast.

Apartment buildings, such as these in Lyon, are home to many French city dwellers.

Villages set amid well-tended fields typify much of rural France. About a quarter of the French live in rural areas. Most enjoy the same modern comforts as city dwellers.

The Tour de France is the greatest national sporting event in Pavement cafes provide a pleasant place for French people France. Each summer, more than 100 of the world's top cyclists stop to eat or drink and meet with friends. The cafes are popular compete in the nearly month-long race spots in most French cities and towns.

Bastille Day, July 14, is France's national holiday. The people of France celebrate the holiday with parades, fireworks, and danc­ing. These dancers are performing at a celebration in Arles.

French museums are among the best in the world. The Orsay Museum, above, occupies a restored former railway station in Paris. It displays art from the 18ffs and 1900's.

Castles called chateaux were the high point of Frence Renaissance architecture. Many of these magnificent castles stand in the Loire Val ley. At Chenonceaux, near Tours, a chateau spans the River Cher. It was built ii the 1500 s.

Monument to Balzac (1897), a bronze statue; Museum of Modern Art, New York City

Sculptor Auguste Rodin created many expressive figures. One of his finest works is a statue of French author Honore de Balzac.

St John on Patmos, a manuscript painting from The Hours of Etienne Chevalier (1450-14551); Musee Conde, Chantilly, France.

The Table 119251, an oil painting on canvas; Tate Gallery, London

French painting has produced great works for centuries. In the 1400's, Jean Fouquet painted richly coloured miniatures. The work of artists such as Pierre Bonnard, right, made France the centre of Western painting in the late 1800's and early 1900's

Masterpieces of French decorative art include beautiful tapestries and car­pets, and richly carved furniture.

Detail of a room (late 1600's) in the palace of Versailles, France

The Gross Domestic Product (CDP) is the total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year. The GDP measures a nation's total economic performance and can also be used to compare the economic output and growth of coun­tries. France's GDP was U.S.$1,194,201,000,000 in 1991. (Services = 67%, Industry 20% and Agriculture = 4%)

Tourism contributes significantly to the French economy. A bateau mouche (excursion boat), carries tourists along the Seine River in Paris. Millions of tourists visit Paris every year.

Car production is one of France’s leading industries. Examples - workers build engines in a Renault factory.

France produces more wine than any other country except Italy. Wooden barrels hold the wine for aging. A wine tester, on the left, uses a wine thief to draw a sample.

France's TGV (train a grande vitesse, or high-speed train) began operating between Paris and Lyon in 1981.

Storming of the Bastille (about 18001, an oil painting on canvas by an unknown artist; Chateau Versailles, France

The storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, was an early event in the French Revolution. A huge crowd of Parisians cap­tured the fortress, forcing royal troops to withdraw from Paris.

Charles de Gaulle served as president of France from 1958 to 1969. He greatly increased the power of the presidency, particu­larly in the conduct of foreign policy.

France

France is the largest country of Western Europe in area. Paris, the capital of France and largest city in the country, ranks as one of the world's great cities. For hundreds of years, Paris has been a world capital of art and learning. Its university is over 800years old, and is one of the largest in the world. Paris attracts artists and writ­ers of all nationalities. Many great artists have produced their finest masterpieces there. It is a city renowned for its beauty and magnificent architecture. Every year, mil­lions of tourists visit such famous Paris landmarks as the Cathedral of Notre Dame, the Eiffel Tower, and the Louvre—which is one of the largest art museums in the world.

There is much more to France than just Paris, how­ever. The snow-capped Alps form the border between France and Italy and attract many climbers and skiers every year. Sunny beaches and steep cliffs stretch along the French coast on the Mediterranean Sea. The French Riviera, the stretch of coast by the Italian border, is a popular holiday region. Fishing villages dot the Atlantic coast of northwestern France.

The peaceful, wooded Loire Valley has many historic chateaux (castles). Colourful apple orchards, dairy farms, and vineyards are located throughout much of the coun­tryside. Many regions of France have fields of golden wheat.

The Franch are famous for their enjoyment of life. Good food and good wine are an important part of everyday living for most French people. The wines of France are considered to be the best in the world. Al­most every restaurant and area has at least one special recipe of its own. The delicious breads, appetizers, sauces, soups, and desserts of France are imitated by cooks in most parts of the world.

France has a long and colourful history. Julius Caesar and his Roman soldiers conquered the region before the time of Christ Then, after Rome fell, the Franks and other Germanic tribes invaded the region. France was named after the Franks. By the A.D. 800's, the mighty Charlemagne, king of the Franks, had built the area into a huge kingdom.

In 1792, during the French Revolution, France became one of the first nations to overthrow its king and set up a republic. A few years later, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power. He conquered much of Europe before he finally was defeated. During World Wars I and II, France be­came a bloody battleground for Allied armies and the invading German forces.

France is not only a beautiful and historic country, it is also rich and powerful. France has great car, chemical, and steel industries. It is a leader in growing wheat, veg­etables, and many other crops. France stands fifth among the countries of the world in its trade with other nations, as measured by exports. France also plays an important part in world politics. Its foreign policies af­fect millions of people in other countries.

The political importance of France today has resulted partly from the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, who served as president of the country from 1958 to 1969. De Gaulle established a strong French republic. He looked ₀n France as a world power and followed a policy that was independent of both the United States and the Communist nations. De Gaulle ended France's close mil­itary ties with the United States and tried to improve re­lations with Communist countries. De Gaulle's actions angered many other nations, but to the proud people of France he was a symbol of their nation's greatness.

Government

France is a parliamentary democracy with a strong na­tional government. Its present government, called the Fifth Republic, has been in effect since 1958. The First Republic was established in 1792. Between 1792 and 1958, the structure of the French government changed many times.

France's national government has three branches.

They are (Dan executive branch headed by a president and a prime minister, (2) a legislative branch consisting of a Parliament, and (3) a judicial branch, or system of courts. The French constitution provides each branch of government with certain powers, but the branches' functions sometimes overlap.

National government. The president of France is elected to a seven-year term by voters aged 18 or older. The president can serve an unlimited number of terms. The president appoints the prime minister (also called premier). The prime minister chooses the other minis­ters who make up the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The president is considered the head of state and the prime minister is head of the government. The president man­ages the nation's foreign affairs. The prime minister di­rects the day-to-day operations of the government.

France's Parliament consists of two houses, the Na­tional Assembly and the Senate. The National Assembly consists of 577 deputies, elected by the voters for five- year terms, unless an election is called earlier. The pres­ident has the power to dissolve the National Assembly and call for new elections. The Senate has 319 members. Senators are elected to nine-year terms by regional and city electoral colleges. The National Assembly is more powerful than the Senate. For example, if the two houses disagree on the text of a proposed law, the Na­tional Assembly makes the final decision. In addition, the Council of Ministers must have the support of a ma­jority of members in the National Assembly. Without such a majority, the ministers must resign and the presi­dent appoint a new prime minister.

Local government. The basic unit of local govern­ment in France is the commune. France has about 36,500 communes, which range in size from small villages to large cities. Each commune is governed by a mayor and a local council.

Mainland France and the island of Corsica are divided into 96 metropolitan departments. Each department is administered by a locally elected council. Each also has a commissioner (formerly a prefect), who is appointed by the national government and who represents the government. Each department is part of one of France's 22 regions. Each region has a regional council, elected by the people, and a president elected by the council members. The region of Corsica has a special status with more local independence.

France has nine inhabited overseas possessions: Gua­deloupe and Martinique, both in the West Indies; Re­union and Mayotte, both in the Indian Ocean; New Cale­donia, French Polynesia, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands, all in the South Pacific Ocean; French Guiana in South America; and Saint-Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic Ocean. These possessions are considered to be part of France. Their people vote for the president of France and send representatives to both houses of the French Parliament.

Politics. France has several political parties. The So­cialist Party and the French Communist Party hold liberal or radical views. In theory, both parties support public ownership or control of most of the country's factories, machines, and other basic means of production. In prac­tice, however, the Socialists have cooperated with pri­vate business since the 1930s. Both the Socialists and the Communists support strong, government-financed social security and medical benefits. The chief conserva­tive political parties in France are the Union for French Democracy (UDF) and the Rally for the Republic (RPR).

The UDF has called for removing government regula­tions that restrict individuals and companies from oper­ating freely in the French economy. The RPR supports the policies of former French President Charles de Gaulle. It favours a strong national government and an aggressive foreign policy. The National Front an ex­treme conservative political party, opposes immigration and favours the death penalty.

Courts are in the major cities of each department. Appeals from civil and criminal courts may be taken to Courts of Appeal. The Courts of Assizes hear cases in­volving murder and other serious crimes. The decisions of the Courts of Appeal and Assizes are generally final. But the Court of Cassation, the highest court of France, may review them. It can return cases to the lower courts for new trials. A minister of justice controls appoint­ments and promotions of judges. Judges are appointed for life.

Armed forces. Men aged 18 to 35 must serve one year of active duty in the French armed forces. About 550,000 men and women serve in the army, navy, and air force. The French government spends about 20 per cent of its national budget on the military.

People

Among the people of France, there are notable re­gional differences in language and traditions. As a re­sult, many people in France have a strong sense of re­gional identity. In the regions of Corsica and Brittany, some people have organized to work for independence from France. However, most people in the various re­gions of France feel comfortable having both a regional identity and a national "French" identity.

Population. France has a population of about 56 mil­lion. About a sixth of the French people live in the Paris metropolitan area, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. France has 36 cities with populations of over 100,000. Five of the cities have more than 300,000 people. In order of size, they are Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, and Nice. See the articles on French cities listed in the Related articles at the end of this article.

About 7 per cent of France s population consists of foreign residents. The largest foreign groups are people from Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Turkey, and Indochina. In recent years, hundreds of thousands of refugees from former French colonies in Africa and Indochina have moved to France. The status of these immigrants is a controversial issue in the coun­try. For example, Algerian immigrants represent a large work force that the country has not yet absorbed. Alge­rian workers are often the first to be laid off during peri­ods of slow economic activity. Because they send most of their earnings home, many of them live in poor neighbourhoods. Some immigrants from Morocco, Por­tugal, Tunisia, and Turkey are in similar situations. On the other hand, many Vietnamese refugees have be­come more fully integrated into French society.

Ancestry. In ancient times, peoples known as Cauls lived in what is now France (see Gaul). The Gauls were a Celtic people related to the Welsh and the Irish. Roman, Germanic, and then Norse invaders came from the south, east, and north. The Romans brought peace to the warring Gallic tribes, and Roman law became the basis of modern French law. The name of France came from Germanic conquerors called Franks. Many people of northeastern France have Germanic ancestors. Some people from Normandy trace their ancestry back to the Norse people who settled there.

Language. By about the 1500's, the language that is now called French was spoken only in the area around Paris. The rest of the people living in what is now France spoke Basque, Breton, Dutch, or German, or dialects re­lated to modern French, such as Walloon, Picard, or Provencal. The building of the modern French nation is closely tied to the standardization and increased use of 'I the local dialect of Paris, beginning in the 1500s. For a 3 detailed discussion of the French language, including its development, see French language.

On the island of Corsica, the majority of the population speak a dialect similar to Italian. A group of people living along the Pyrenees Mountains speak Basque. The region of Brittany has a significant number of people I who speak Breton. Along the border with Belgium, many people speak the Flemish dialect of Dutch. The religion of Alsace has many German-speaking people. In all of these regions, however, French is taught in the schools and the number of people who speak the re­gional tongue has dwindled from one generation to the next. In Corsica, Brittany, and the Pyrenees, people have formed groups to promote the use of the local lan­guage.

Way of life

City life. Almost three-quarters of the French people live in cities and towns of at least 2,000 people. The Paris metropolitan area has about 9 million people. In the larger cities, most people live in apartments. Many Parisians live in old apartment buildings. In general, the older a building is, the more prestigious it is. Many French city dwellers tolerate buildings with old plumb­ing and appliances so that they may enjoy antique fire­places and other features of the architecture.

Strict zoning regulations help protect and enhance the centre of many French cities. Such regulations may prohibit traffic on certain city streets or limit high-rise construction in the centre of a city. The regulations are designed to ensure a high quality of life for urban resi­dents. Such urban problems as overcrowding and high crime rates are more likely to occur in the outskirts of cities or in nearby suburbs.

While city living is generally pleasant, it is also expen­sive. Many poor city residents live outside the city cen­tres in run-down apartments or in housing complexes built by the government. Many middle-class people can­not afford to live in Paris, and instead live in a suburb as a second choice. Public transport systems carry people from the suburbs to a variety of jobs and recreational and cultural activities in the city.

Rural life. Only about a quarter of the French people live in rural areas. Flowever, France traditionally has been an agricultural society. The French people are thus more familiar with—and more respectful of—such rural activities as farming and hunting than are people in many urbanized countries.

Most rural residents enjoy the same comforts and conveniences as city dwellers. Most of them live in single-family houses in villages or on farms. They often own cars and television sets and have such modern ap­pliances as refrigerators and washing machines.

Farmers and their families make up much of the rural population of France. Most farmers own their land.

Some rent all or part of their land. A few French farmers are wealthy. But many farmers require other sources of income to support their families. A spouse or another family member may hold a job as a factory worker, of­fice worker, or teacher. In poorer areas such as Brittany, some farmers earn barely enough to support them­selves.

One problem for rural France is that most of its farms are too small to compete with the farms of many other western European countries. For this reason, French farms cannot support all those born and raised on them. Since 1959, the rural population of France has dropped by almost half.

Food and drink. The French consider cooking an art. French haute cuisine (gourmet cooking) has set a standard accepted in many parts of the world since the 1700's. French chefs have created many delicious sauces and appetizers. French appetizers include escargots (snails) in garlic butter sauce, scallops and mushrooms in a creamy wine sauce, and puff pastries filled with chicken in cream sauce. Sausages and pites (chopped meat cooked with spices) also serve as appetizers. Goose liver pate with black mushroomlike truffles is considered a special delicacy. French cooks sometimes put tasty fill­ings of cheese, vegetables, shrimp, ham, or bacon into omelettes, crepes (thin, rolled pancakes), and quiches (custard baked in a pastry shell). These dishes can be served as appetizers or as light meals.

A typical French main meal has several courses. It starts with an appetizer or onion or potato soup. Popular main courses include steaks, chops, and roast chicken, served with French fried potatoes. A green salad often follows the main course, then cheese or fresh fruit. Crusty French bread accompanies most courses. A very special meal might add a light fish course before the main course and a dessert after the cheese course. Des­serts include fancy pastries, fruit tarts, and crepes filled with whipped cream or cooked fruit.

Such hearty French specialities as bouillabaisse and cassoulet make a full meal and need few extras. Bouilla­baisse is a chunky fish soup with six or more kinds of fish and shellfish. Cassoulet is a casserole of beans, sau­sage, poultry, and pork.

The French eat light breakfasts. A typical breakfast consists of such soft rolls as croissants and brioches, served with butter and jam, plus coffee.

Some French people drink wine at lunch and dinner, sometimes different wines with different courses. Beer, cider, or mineral water may substitute for wine. Coffee is served at breakfast, and after other meals.

Recreation. The greatest national sporting event in France is the Tour de France, a bicycle race. Every sum­mer, more than a hundred professional cyclists race around almost the entire country. They ride daily for nearly a month, and finish in Paris. Thousands of specta­tors line the route and cheer them along.

France's most popular team sport is football. Almost every area and region in France has its own football team. The French also enjoy such sports as boules (a form of bowls), fishing, ice skating, rugby, skiing, swim­ming, and tennis.

All French workers are entitled to receive five weeks' paid holiday every year. In July and August, cars filled with holiday-makers crowd the main roads leading south to the mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. To accommodate holiday-makers, there are thousands of special camps and inexpensive resorts that organize ac­tivities for children and adults. Many French people have second homes in the country. Holiday festivals in many southern cities feature music, theatre, parades, and folk dancing.

Throughout the year, many city dwellers take daily walks through public parks. They may stop at one of the pavement cafes that dot many city boulevards. Many French people also enjoy watching television and listen­ing to the radio. Television programmes made in the United States have become especially popular.

Holidays. Most French holidays and festivals are closely connected with the Roman Catholic Church. Many cities celebrate Shrove Tuesday, the last day be­fore Lent, with a merry festival called Carnavat The Car- naval celebration in Nice includes a colourful parade, and attracts many tourists. Most villages honour their local patron saints with a festival in July.

At Noel IChristmas), French families hold reunions and the children receive gifts (see Christmas |ln France]). The people also exchange gifts on Le Jour de I'An (New Year's Day). At Paques (Easter), the children receive col­oured sugar eggs and chocolate chickens.

The French national holiday is Bastille Day, July 14. It marks the capture of the Bastille, a fortified prison, by the people of Paris in 1789, during the French Revolu­tion. A large military parade is held in Paris on Bastille pay. At night, the people watch fireworks and some­times dance in the streets until dawn. The French also celebrate Labour Day on May 1, and Armistice Day on November 11.

Religion. About 75 per cent of the French people are Roman Catholics. About 3 per cent are Muslims, and about 2 per cent are Protestants. About 1 per cent are Jews. France has more Jews than any other European country. From 1801 to 1905, the French government rec­ognized Roman Catholicism as the religion of the major­ity of the people. Bishops and priests were state offi­cials, and were paid by the government. This church- state connection, established by Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, was broken by French law in 1905.

Education. French children between the ages of 6 and 16 must go to school. About 85 per cent of children attend state schools. The others attend private schools, most of which are run by the Roman Catholic Church.

Children from the ages of 2 to 6 may attend free nur­sery schools. Reading is taught during the last year of these schools. Children from the ages of 6 to 11 attend primary schools. Formerly, boys and girls went to sepa­rate schools. But since the 1970's, they have attended school together. After five years of primary school, chil­dren enter a college. A college is a four-year school.

After college, students enter either a vocational sec­ondary school or a general secondary school. Both kinds of secondary schools are called lycees. Vocational secondary schools offer job training in business, crafts, farming, and industry. General secondary schools pro­vide a three-year course that prepares students to enter university. The last year of such schools is a period of specialized study in one of five areas. These areas are philosophy, experimental sciences, mathematics, mathe­matics and technology, and economics and social sci­ences. A baccalaureat examination completes this pro­gramme. This examination is so difficult that about a third of the students fail to pass it.

France has about 75 universities. Each university se­lects its own courses and teaching methods. Students have a voice in university administration. The govern­ment provides financial support for students.

France also has schools of higher education called Crandes Ecoles (Great Schools). They prepare students for high-ranking careers in the civil and military serv­ices, commerce, education, industry, and other fields.

Museums and libraries. France has many excellent museums. The best known, the Louvre in Paris, is one of the largest art museums in the world (see Louvre). Many old castles and palaces are national historical museums. They include the palace at Versailles, built by King Louis XIV (see Versailles). The Orsay Museum in Paris, located in a beautifully restored former railway station, exhibits paintings from the 1800's and 1900's—including many impressionist works. The Georges Pompidou National Centre of Art and Culture in Paris includes a museum of modern art, a major public reference library, and a mu­seum of industrial design. The Museum of Man has im­portant scientific exhibits.

There are public libraries in all large French cities. France's national library, the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, is one of the largest libraries in Western Europe (see Bibliotheque Nationale). Other important libraries include the Mazarine Library of the Institute of France, the country's major learned society. The University of Paris also has fine libraries.

Arts

Since the Middle Ages, French artists, composers, ar­chitects, and writers have been among the cultural lead­ers of Europe. During many periods of history, French styles in painting, music, drama, and other art forms served as models for other Western countries. This sec­tion discusses the major art movements in France. For more information, see French literature, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, and Classical music with their lists of Related articles.

The Middle Ages. The greatest works of medieval French art were magnificent Gothic cathedrals built from about 1150 to 1300. The finest examples include the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris and cathedrals in the cities of Amiens, Chartres, Reims, and Rouen. Much of the finest French sculpture of the time was created as decoration for the Gothic cathedrals.

Poetry was the most important literary form among medieval French writers. Musician-poets called trouba- dors wrote love songs in the Provencal dialect of south­ern France. Poets called trouveres carried this poetry to northern France. Other medieval poets wrote epic poems and long fictional works called romances.

The Renaissance was an important cultural period that reached its height during the 1400's and 1500's. Franqois Rabelais was the most important French fiction writer of the French Renaissance. Flis satirical Cargantua and Pantagruel (1532-1564) is a masterpiece of Western literature. Seven French poets called the Pleiade wanted to create a new kind of French poetry based on ancient Greek and Roman models. Pierre de Ronsard and Jo­achim du Bellay were the group's major poets. Michel de Montaigne was the last great writer of this period. Fie created the personal essay as a literary form.

The finest French Renaissance architecture appeared as magnificent castles called chateaux. The best exam­ples include those at Fontainebleau, Chambord, and Azay-le-Rideau. All were built in the early 1500^rs.

Baroque and rococo art developed in France dur­ing the 1 600s and 1700's. Baroque art was large in scale

and dramatic. Perhaps the greatest monument to ba­roque art in France is the spectacular palace at Ver­sailles (begun about 1661).

The major French baroque composers were Jean Baptiste Lully and Jean Philippe Rameau, both known fc their operas. Francois Couperin was an important com­poser of music for a keyboard instrument called the harpsichord.

Rococo art was smaller in scale and more delicate than that of the baroque style. The leading rococo artisi were three painters—Franqois Boucher, Jean Honore Fragonard, and Antoine Watteau.

French classical art spanned the 1600's and 170ffs; well. It stressed order, balance, and harmony, and placed heavy emphasis on the role of the intellect in an alysing human behaviour. Frangois de Malherbe was th first and greatest classical poet. His clear, rational, and sober poems became the basic style for classical verse. In prose, the leaders were two philosophers, Rene Des cartes and Blaise Pascal.

The greatest expression of French classical literature was in drama. The major figures were Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, and Moliere. Corneille and Racine wrote tragedies. Moliere ranks as the greatest writer of com­edy in French drama.

In painting, classical ideals were best represented by Claude. His landscapes illustrate the classical admiratio for balance, harmony, and order.

The Age of Reason, also called the Enlightenment, was a period of intellectual achievement in the 1600's and 1700's dominated by philosophical literature. Writ­ers of this period emphasized reason and observation; the best methods of learning truth. The crucial figures i this movement were Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and Denis Diderot.

Romanticism began in the late 1700's and flourishet until the mid-1800s. It was partly a reaction against the attitudes of classicism and the Age of Reason. For exam pie, romantic art and literature stressed emotions and the imagination rather than self-discipline and reason.

Jean Jacques Rousseau was a major personality in romanticism even though he was also a leader of the En­lightenment. The greatest romantic writer was the nov­elist, poet, and playwright Victor Hugo. Honore de Bal­zac, Stendhal, and George Sand were also outstanding romantic novelists, though their work was more realistic than that of the typical romantic novelist.

Romantic painting was colourful and dramatic. It is best represented in the painting of Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix. Auguste Rodin is recognized as the greatest romantic sculptor, though he worked later in the 1800s than most other romantic artists.

Hector Berlioz was the greatest French romantic com­poser. He gained fame for his large-scale orchestral works. Georges Bizet wrote the romantic Carmen (1875), probably the most popular opera ever written.

Realism and naturalism were movements of the middle and late 1800's that tried to portray life accurately and objectively. Gustave Flaubert was the major repre­sentative of realism, notably for his novel Madame Bovary (18571. Guy de Maupassant gained recognition for his realistic short stories. Naturalism, an extreme form of realism, was led by novelist Emile Zola.

Impressionism was a movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's centred on French painting. The impres­sionists tried to capture the immediate impression of an object or event. The leading impressionist painters in­cluded Edouard Manet, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, and Pierre Renoir. A movement called postimpressionism developed out of impressionism.

The key French postimpressionists were Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, and Henri de Toulouse- Lautrec. The movement produced two great composers, Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel.

The 1900's. Paul Claudel, Andre Gide, Marcel Proust, and Paul Valery were the leading French writers of the early 1900s. Claudel wrote works that reflect his deep Roman Catholic faith. Gide and Proust were major novel­ists. Valery wrote classical poetry.

Philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus wrote important drama and essays in the mid-1900's. Major French writers of the late 1900's include Alain Robbe-Grillet, Claude Simon, and Marguerite Duras.

Such painters as Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso (who was born in Spain), Georges Rouault, and Fernand Leger helped shape modern art. Sculptors Aristide Maillol, jean Arp, and Antoine Pevsner were also important. The Swiss-born French architect Le Corbusier had a great in­fluence on architecture with his International Style.

Composers Pierre Boulez and Olivier Messiaen were leaders in experimental music. Boulez became known for his work in electronic music.

The land

France has wide differences in geography. The north­ern and western regions consist mainly of flat or rolling plains. Hills and mountains rise in the eastern, central, and southern parts of France. France is divided into 10 main land regions. They are (1) the Brittany-Normandy Hills, (21 the Northern France Plains, (3) the Northeastern Plateaus, (4) the Rhine Valley, (5) the Aquitanian Low­lands, (6) the Central Highlands, (7) the French Alps and Jura Mountains, (81 the Pyrenees Mountains, (9) the Med­iterranean Lowlands and Rhone-Saone Valley, and (101 Corsica.

The Brittany-Normandy Hills have low, rounded hills and rolling plains. This region consists of ancient rock covered by poor soils, with some fertile areas along the coast. Apple orchards, dairy farms, and grasslands criss­cross the land. In some areas, thick hedges separate the fields. Many bays indent the rugged coast and have im­portant fishing harbours.

The Northern France Plains have highly fertile soils and productive industries. The plains are flat or rolling, and are broken up by forest-covered hills and plateaus. This heavily populated region includes Paris. The Paris

Basin, also called the Ile-de-France, is a large, circular area drained by the Seine and other major rivers. East i Paris, a series of rocky ridges resembles the upturned edge of a huge saucer. Coal is mined near the Belgian border.

The Northeastern Plateaus share the Ardennes Mountains with Belgium. This wooded region become a little more rugged to the southeast, in the Vosges Mountains. It has great deposits of iron ore, and pro­duces iron and steel. Farmers rear livestock and grow variety of crops on the lower slopes and in the valleys. Foresters operate in the area.

The Rhine Valley has steep slopes and a flat valley floor. Trees and vines cover the slopes, and rich farm­land lies along the Rhine River. This river, which forms part of France's boundary with Germany, is the main ir land waterway in Europe. Important roads and railway follow its course.

The Aquitanian Lowlands are drained by the Ga­ronne River and the streams that flow into it. Sandy beaches lie along the coast. Inland, the region has pirn forests, rolling plains, and sand dunes. Its many vine­yards supply grapes for France's important wine industry. Oil and natural gas fields are located near Landes, forested area about 100 kilometres south of the major port of Bordeaux.

The Central Highlands, or Massif Central, is thinly populated. The soils in the region are poor, except in some valleys, where rye and other crops are grown. C tie and sheep graze on the lower grasslands, and fore: cover the higher slopes. The Loire River, about 1,050 kilometres long, rises in the Cevennes Mountains. The Loire is the longest river in France. See Loire River.

The French Alps and Jura Mountains border on Italy and Switzerland. Snow-capped Mont Blanc, the higher point in France, rises 4,807 metres. Many tourists visit nearby Chamonix and other ski resorts in the mountains.

Mountain streams provide much hydroelectric power. See Alps.

The Pyrenees Mountains extend along France's bor der with Spain. Many peaks in this range rise more tha 3,000 metres. The rugged mountains have poor soils and are thinly populated. See F’yrenees.

The Mediterranean Lowlands and Rhone-Saone Vi ley region has productive farming areas, and irrigation is used widely. Fruit, vegetables, and grapes for wine are important products. Marseille, on the Mediterra nean Sea, is the leading seaport of France. The coast also includes the Riviera, a famous resort area. See Rhone River; Riviera.

Corsica is a Mediterranean island about 160 kilo­metres southeast of mainland France. It has hills and mountains similar to those of the Central Highlands. The island has generally poor soils and a steep, rocky coastline. Crops are grown in the valleys, and sheep graze in the mountains. See Corsica.

Climate

The climate varies widely among the various regior of France. The differences in climate are closely relate to the distance of the land from the Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea. Westerly winds that blow in from the Atlantic strongly influence the climate of western France. The coastal regions there have a rainy cli­mate with cool winters and mild summers.

To the east, away from the Atlantic, the climate changes sharply between seasons. These inland regions have hot summers and cold winters, with medium rain-fall throughout the year.

The mountainous regions receive the most precipitation (rain, melted snow, and other forms of moisture), most of it in summer. Heavy winter snows fall in the Alps and Jura Mountains, and huge glaciers are fount the Alps.

Along the Mediterranean Sea, the lowlands have hot, dry summers and mild winters with some rainfall. Swift, cold north winds called mistrals sometimes blow over southern France and cause crop damage. The Alps shield the sunny Riviera from the cold north winds dur­ing much of the year.

Economy

France is a prosperous nation and its people have a high standard of living. The prosperity has resulted largely from sweeping economic changes that have been made since the 194ffs. Before World War II, the French economy was based mainly on small farms and businesses. After the war ended in 1945, the French gov­ernment worked to modernize the economy. New meth­ods of production and trade were developed through a series of national plans. These improvements have brought ever-increasing production.

Most French businesses are privately owned. The government has owned all or part of some businesses, including banks, steel companies, and Renault—the larg­est French car manufacturer. Generally, when the Social­ists have controlled the government, they have worked to increase government ownership of business. When Conservatives have been in control, they have sought to decrease government ownership.

In 1993, Conservatives gained control of the French Parliament. A law was passed that allowed the sale of most of the government-owned businesses to private owners. The exceptions included the defence, utility, and transportation and communication industries. The sale of government-owned businesses began in late 1993. The process was expected to continue over sev­eral years.

Natural resources play an important part in France's prosperity. Fertile soils are the country's most important natural resource. More than 90 per cent of France's total land area is fertile. The richest farmlands lie in the north and northeast, where wheat and sugar beet are the chief crops. The rainier northwest consists mainly of grass­lands, used for grazing cattle and sheep, and orchards. Many of the drier areas of southern France have good soils for growing grapes. Soils are generally poor in the Central Highlands and on Corsica.

France has major deposits of iron ore and bauxite (aluminium ore). There are also deposits of coal, petro­leum, natural gas, and potash. France has large areas of forests.

Service industries are those economic activities that produce services, not goods. About 60 per cent of the workers are employed by service industries. Service in­dustries are especially important to the Paris area.

Community, government, and personal services form the most important type of service industry. This indus­try employs about a third of all workers. It includes such economic activities as education and health care, gov­ernment and the military, and data processing.

Trade, hotels, and restaurants form the second most important type of service industry in terms of employ­ment. Paris is a major world centre for the wholesale trade of cars and chemicals. Marseille, France's main seaport, is the centre of the country's foreign trade. Lyon is a leading city in the wholesale trade of textiles. Retail trade, hotels, and restaurants are greatly aided by the large numbers of tourists that visit France.

Other service industries include finance, insurance, and property; transportation and communication; and utilities. Transportation and communication are dis­cussed later in this section.

Manufacturing. France ranks as one of the world's leading manufacturing nations. The Paris area is the country's chief manufacturing centre, but there are fac­tories in cities and towns throughout the country.

France is the fourth largest producer of cars in the world, after Japan, the United States, and Germany. French cars include Renaults, Peugeots, and Citroens. Car plants are located in the Paris Basin and near Lyon, Rennes, and Douai. France also makes railway equip­ment and has the world's fastest trains.

France is a major manufacturer of sophisticated mili­tary and commercial aeroplanes. Toulouse is the centre of aircraft production. France has a successful space programme, and has launched rockets and communica­tions satellites. The country also produces aerospace equipment, electronic defence systems, and many kinds of weapons. France has a fast-growing commercial elec­tronics industry that produces computers, radios, televi­sion sets, and telephone equipment.

The chemical industry produces a variety of products, from industrial chemicals to medicines and cosmetics. French plants make high-quality glass and tyres.

The French iron and steel industry uses imported iron ore as well as ore mined in France. The aluminium in­dustry uses bauxite taken from French mines. Local and imported wood goes into the production of furniture, timber, and pulp and paper. The famous French per­fume industry, based in Paris, uses flowers that are grown in southeastern France.

France is a major producer of industrial machinery, and also ranks as a leader in designing new machines. French firms perform engineering services and also construct industrial and transportation projects in many countries. France also produces machine tools and ro­botic machines that perform repeated tasks in factories.

Cotton and silk textiles have long been important French products. French plants also produce nylon and other artificial fibres. The Lyon area, long a centre for manufacturing silk, also has artificial-fibre factories. Paris, the fashion capital of the world, produces much of the country's clothing.

Food processing employs many French people. Fa­mous French foods include breads, meats, fruit pre­serves, and especially wines and cheeses. France ranks _aS the world's second largest wine-producing country, after Italy. The wines are aged in deep cellars or caves, prance produces butter and about 400 kinds of cheeses, Including Brie, Camembert, and Roquefort. France also is among the world's leading producers of sugar.

Agriculture. France is Western Europe's largest agri­cultural producer and one of the world's leading export­'s of farm products. Almost all French farms have elec­tricity, and most have modern farm machinery. French (arms average 28 hectares in size. About two-thirds of french farm income comes from meat and dairy ani­mals. About a fourth of the land consists of grassland used for grazing. Beef cattle are the chief meat animals, and lambs and sheep are also important. Much of the milk produced on dairy farms is used in making butter and cheese. French farmers have always raised some poultry and pigs, and specialized, large-scale produc­tion of these animals is expanding rapidly.

Crops grow on more than a third of France's land.

Large farms in the Paris Basin and the north grow most of the wheat, France s leading single crop. Most grapes used in making wine are grown in southern France. Crapes for high-quality wines come from several re­gions, including Alsace, Bordeaux, Burgundy, Cham­pagne, and the Loire Valley. The Mediterranean region produces grapes used for cheaper wines. Each region produces grapes that have their own special flavour. Grapes from southwestern France are used in brandy.

Apple orchards dot many areas of northern France, especially Normandy. Potatoes, sugar beet, and such livestock-feed crops as barley, maize, oats, and rape­seed are major crops. Other important French crops in­clude beans, carrots, cauliflower, cherries, flowers, peas, peaches, pears, sunflower seeds, and tomatoes

Forestry. Forests cover about a quarter of France. Heavily forested areas include the Northeastern Pla­teaus, the Central Highlands, the southwest coastal areas, and the slopes of the Alps, Juras, Pyrenees, and Vosges. Many forests have been planted in the Landes area of southwestern France for use by the pulp and paper industry. Cork oaks, pine trees, and olives grow along the dry Mediterranean coast and on Corsica. For­est fires are common in these regions. Other trees of France include ashes, beeches, and cypresses.

Mining. Iron ore is France's most important mineral deposit. Most of it comes from Lorraine, and is used in the region's steel industry. Deposits of bauxite, from which aluminium is made, are found in southeastern France. Bauxite was named after the town of Les Baux in the producing area. Alsace has considerable reserves of potash, a substance used in making fertilizers. Discover­ies of natural gas at Lacq, in southwestern France, have attracted many industries. French mines also yield gyp­sum, salt, sulphur, tungsten, and uranium.

Fishing. French commercial fishing brings in a yearly catch of about 680,000 metric tons. Fishing crews work off the French coasts, or sail to the waters of Iceland and Newfoundland, Canada. Many fleets operate from Brit­tany and Normandy. Seafood taken includes cod, crabs, lobsters, monkfish, mussels, oysters, pollock, sardines, scallops, tuna, and whiting.

Energy sources. Nuclear power plants provide more than half of France's electricity. France is a world leader in nuclear energy technology and in the production of nuclear fuels. Most of the rest of France's electric power is generated by coal-burning plants or by hydroelectric power. The Alps and the jura Mountains have many hy­droelectric plants.

In 1966, the French government began operating the world's first tidal power plant. It uses the tides in the mouth of the Ranee River in Brittany. These tides are among the highest in the world, and may reach a height of 13 metres. A solar power plant operates in the Pyre­nees.

Foreign trade of France, as measured by exports ranks fifth in the world after the United States, German Japan, and the United Kingdom (UK). The value of France's imports is slightly higher than the value of its exports. France's major imports are petroleum products Its major exports include chemical products, machine™ electrical equipment, and cars. France belongs to the European Union, also called the European Common Market (see European Union). About half of France's trade is with European Union countries, mainly Ger­many. France's major trading partners outside the Euro­pean Union include Japan, Switzerland, and the United States.

Transportation. Since the 1700's, France has had more road mileage in relation to its size than any other European country. Today, it has a fine road system, in­cluding many multilane motorways. Most French house­holds own at least one car. Two of the world's longest road tunnels link France and Italy. One, 13.0 kilometres long, cuts through Frejus Peak. The other, 11.7 kilome­tres long, cuts through Mont Blanc. In 1994, a tunnel be­neath the English Channel was opened. The tunnel links France and the UK by rail (see Channel Tunnel).

The French railway system, owned and operated by the government, provides excellent passenger and freight services. The rail network forms a cobweb pat­tern, with Paris as the hub. A railway tunnel through Frejus Peak links France with Italy. In 1981, a high-speed electric train began operating between Paris and Lyon. Called the TGV (train a grande vitesse, or high-speed train), it reaches speeds of up to about 270 kilometres per hour. Today, it also links Paris to several cities in Switzerland. In 1989, a faster TGV began operation be­tween Paris and other cities in France. A top speed of 300 kilometres per hour makes it the world's fastest pas­senger train.

Charles de Gaulle and Orly airports, both near Paris, rank among the world's busiest airports. Other major airports include Marseille, Nice, and Lyon. Air France, an airline jointly owned by the French government and private investors, serves about 75 countries. Another airline, Air Inter, provides a service among the large cities of France. Air Inter is fully owned by the government.

Ships and barges operate on navigable rivers and ca­bals throughout France. These rivers include the Rhine, Rhone, and Seine. Northern and eastern France have ^ell-developed canal systems. Oceangoing ships dock _at many fine French seaports. The country's busiest sea­ports are Marseille, Le Havre, and Dunkerque.

Communication. France has about 85 daily newspa­pers, representing a wide range of political opinions.

The largest newspaper, Ouest-France of Rennes, prints about 45 different editions, each with local news. Other major daily newspapers include Le Figaro, France-Soir, le Monde, Liberation, and Le Parisien Libere of Paris; Sud-Ouest of Bordeaux; La Voix du Nord of Lille; Le Progres of Lyon; Le Provengal of Marseille; and Le Dauphine Libere of Grenoble. Major weekly news mag­azines include L Express and Le Nouvel Observateur.

France has several television and radio networks, most of which are operated by independent govern­ment agencies. The broadcasting system's income is largely provided by annual taxes on radios and televi­sion sets. Almost all French households possess at least one radio and most own a television set.

A government agency supervises France's film indus­try. The agency's activities include giving financial aid to producers, especially of experimental films and films of serious dramatic value. The annual Cannes Film Festival, In Cannes, is the world's largest international film event. There are about 4,700 cinemas throughout the country.

History

Early days. In ancient times, tribes of Celts and other peoples lived in what is now France. The Romans called the region Gallia (Gaul). Roman armies began to invade Caul in about 200 B.C. By 121 B.C, Rome controlled the Gallic land along the Mediterranean Sea and in the Rhone Valley. Julius Caesar conquered the entire region between 58 and 51 B.C. The people, called Cauls, soon adopted Roman ways of life. They used the Latin lan­guage of the invaders. Gaul prospered under Roman rule for hundreds of years, in spite of barbarian inva­sions during the A.D. 200's and 300's. See Celts; Gaul.

Victory of the Franks. The border defences of the West Roman Empire began to crumble in the A.D. 400's. Germanic tribes from the east, including Burgundians, Franks, and Visigoths, crossed the Rhine River and en­tered Gaul. They killed many Gauls and drove others west into what is now Brittany. Clovis, the king of the Salian Franks, defeated the Roman governor of Gaul in 486 at Soissons. Clovis then defeated other Germanic tribes in Gaul, and extended his kingdom. He founded the Merovingian dynasty (a series of rulers from the same family), and adopted Christianity. See Clovis I; Franks; Merovingian.

The rise of manorialism and feudalism. From the 600's to the 1000s, during the chaotic years of the early Middle Ages, manors covered much of France. Manors were large estates governed by owners called landlords or lords, who offered military protection to peasants called serfs. Manorialism was a system of organizing agricultural labour. See Manorialism; Serf; Middle Ages.

A political and military system called feudalism began to appear in the 700's. A feudal lord gave his subjects land in return for military and other services. Both the lord and his subjects, called vassals, were aristocrats.

The land granted by a lord was called a fief. Some small fiefs supported only one vassal. Other fiefs were quite large, such as the province of Normandy. Manorialism and feudalism thrived until the 1100’s. See Feudalism.

The Carolingian dynasty. By the mid-600's, the Mer­ovingian kings had become weak rulers, interested main­ly in personal pleasures. Pepin of Herstal, the chief royal adviser, gradually took over most of the royal powers. His son, Charles Martel, extended the family's power. He received the title of Martel (the Hammer) after defeating an invading Arab army in 732. The battle began near Tours and ended near Poitiers. Charles Martel became king of the Franks in all but title. See Charles Martel.

Charles Martel's son, Pepin the Short, overthrew the last Merovingian ruler and became king of the Franks in 751. He founded the Carolingian dynasty, and enlarged the Frankish kingdom. Pepin also helped develop the political power of the pope by giving Pope Stephen II a large gift of land north of Rome. See Papal States; Pepin the Short.

Pepin's son, Charlemagne, was one of the mightiest conquerors of all time. After Charlemagne became king of the Franks, he went on more than 50 military cam­paigns and expanded his kingdom far beyond the bor­ders of what is now France. He also extended the pope's lands. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Em­peror of the Romans. For the story of Charlemagne and a map of his empire, see Charlemagne.

Charlemagne died in 814, and his three grandsons later fought among themselves for control of his huge empire. They divided it into three kingdoms in 843. In the Treaty of Verdun, one grandson, Charles the Bald, received most of what is now France. The second king­dom consisted of much that is now Germany. The third kingdom lay between the other two. It consisted of a strip of land extending from the North Sea to central Italy. The middle kingdom north of Italy was divided be­tween the other two in 870. See Treaty of Verdun.

For many years, the Capetian kings controlled only their royal domain (land), between Paris and Orleans.

The great feudal nobles ruled their own domains almost independently. The dukes of Normandy were the most powerful of these nobles. Normandy became the most unified and best administered feudal state in Europe. In 1066, the Norman Duke William, later called William the Conqueror, invaded England and became king. See Nor­man Conquest; William (I, the Conqueror)

Growth of royal power. The Capetian kings gradually added more territory to their personal lands, and became stronger than any of their rivals. In addition, every Capetian king for over 300 years had a son to succeed him on the throne. As a result, the nobles' power to select kings died out. The nobles were further weak­ened because many of them left France between 1100 and 1300 on crusades to capture the Holy Land from the Muslims. See Crusades.

Philip II, called Philip Augustus, was the first great Ca­petian king. After he came to the throne in 1180, he more than doubled the royal domain, and tightened his control over the nobles. Philip built up a large body of government officials, many of them from the middle classes in the towns. He also developed Paris as a permanent, expanding capital. See Philip (II) of France.

The handsome Philip IV, called Philip the Fair, rebelled against the pope's authority. He taxed church offi­cials, and arrested a bishop and even Pope Boniface VIII. Philip won public approval for his actions in the first Estates-General, a body of Frenchmen that he called to­gether in 1302. This group was the ancestor of the French Parliament. In 1305, through Philip's influence, a French archbishop was elected pope and became Pope Clement V. In 1309, Clement moved the pope's court from Rome to Avignon, where it remained until 1377. See Philip (IV); Pope (The troubles of the papacy).

Social conditions in Capetian France. By the 1100's, an economic revival in Europe had put money back into use. Towns, which had lost their importance under manorialism and feudalism, sprang up near main trade routes. At first, towns were self-governing. Mer­chants and craftworkers settled in the towns and formed organizations called guilds. Guilds played an important role in town government (see Guilds). As royal govern­ment grew, towns became judicial and administrative centres, as well as manufacturing and trading centres.

Although many people moved to the towns in search of jobs, much of the population stayed in the country­side. Agricultural methods were too primitive to sup­port more than a very small nonagricultural population. Thus, people were still needed on farms to produce food. In both towns and the country, life expectancy was short. Many children died before reaching the age of live.

A period of wars. The last king of the Capetian dynasty, Charles IV, died in 1328 without a male heir. A cousin succeeded him as Philip VI and started the Valois dynasty. King Edward III of England, a nephew of the last Capetian king, also claimed the French throne. In 1337, Edward landed an army in Normandy. This invasion started a series of wars between France and England known as the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). The Eng­lish won most of the battles. But the French, after their victory at Orleans under Joan of Arc, drove the English out of most of France. See Hundred Years' War; Joan of Arc, Saint; Valois.

Louis XI laid the foundations for absolute rule by French kings. During the Hundred Years' War, the kings had lost much of their power to the French nobles.

Louis regained this power. His greatest rival was Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles died in battle in 1477 while trying to conquer the city of Nancy, and Louis seized most of his vast lands. See Louis (XI).

Francis I invaded northern Italy, and captured Milan in 1515. In a later Italian campaign, Francis was defeated by Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. French wars against the Holy Roman Empire continued into the reign of Henry II. The Empire and England were allies. In 1558, this alliance gave Henry an excuse to seize the port city of Calais, England's last possession in France. See Fran­cis (I) of France; Henry (II) of France.

Religious wars. During the early 1500's, a religious movement called the Reformation developed Protestant­ism in Europe. Many French people became Protestants. They followed the teachings of John Calvin, and were called Huguenots. After 1540, the government perse­cuted the Huguenots severely, but they grew in number and political strength. In the late 1500's, French Roman Catholics and the Huguenots fought a series of civil wars that lasted over 30 years. In 1572, thousands of Hu­guenots were killed during the Massacre of Saint Bar­tholomew's Day. See Calvin, John; Huguenots.

Henry III died in 1589 without a male heir. He was fol­lowed by Henry of Navarre, who became Henry IV and started the Bourbon dynasty. But Roman Catholic forces prevented him from entering Paris because he was the leader of the Huguenots. In 1593, Henry became a Roman Catholic to achieve peace. He entered the capital the next year. In 1598, Henry signed the Edict of Nantes, which granted limited freedom of worship to the Hu­guenots. See Bourbon; Henry (III and IV) of France.

The age of absolutism. The power of the kings and their ministers (high government officials) grew steadily from the 1500's to the 1700's. France became strong, largely through the efforts of these ministers. The first important minister was Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of Sully, who served Henry IV. Sully promoted agriculture and such public works as roads and canals. He reduced the taille, the chief tax on the common people. The ac­tual ruler behind Louis XIII was his prime minister, Ar- mand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu. Richelieu in­creased royal power more than any other individual. See Richelieu, Cardinal.

Louis XIV was the outstanding example of the abso­lute French king. He is said to have boasted: "I am the State." After his prime minister died in 1661, Louis de­clared that he would be his own prime minister. In 1685, Louis cancelled the Edict of Nantes and began to perse­cute the Huguenots savagely. About 200,000 Huguenots fled France, which weakened the country's economy. Louis' minister of finance, Jean Baptiste Colbert, pro­moted a strong economy. But the construction of Louis' magnificent palace at Versailles and a series of major wars drained France's finances. Louis tried to rule su­preme in Europe. He was stopped by military alliances that included England, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and other countries. See Grand Alliance; Louis XIV; Succession wars (The war of the Spanish succession).

The gathering storm. By the 1700's, a government bureaucracy had developed to manage a large standing royal army, as well as to collect taxes. Royal courts up­held law and order. Lawyers and jurists bought their of­fices from the king at very high prices. The king allowed those who bought the highest judicial offices to call themselves nobles, and he granted them tax exemptions.

This burdensome system worked well enough to allow remarkable economic and population growth in the 1700's. But the population growth exceeded agricul­ture's production capacities, and food shortages and famines became common. Such growth also strained the guild system that governed the activities of mer­chants and craftworkers in the towns.

Burdened by the needs of the military and unable to tax nobles or church lands, the government was forced to borrow heavily, in 1786, the government proposed a new land tax in order to avoid bankruptcy. Many urban lawyers, merchants, clerks, and craftworkers, as well as some aristocrats, opposed any new taxes. The French Revolution was born out of this crisis.

The French Revolution. To win support for new taxes, King Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates- General. The Estates-General was made up of represent­atives from the three estates, or classes—the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. It opened on May 5,1789, at Versailles, near Paris. In June 1789, members of the third estate—the commoners—declared themselves a National Assembly, with full power to write a new con­stitution for France. The third estate had as many repre­sentatives as the other two estates combined.

At first, Louis XVI delayed taking action and began gathering troops around Paris to break up the Assembly. However, many French people organized an armed re­sistance movement in Paris. On July 14, 1789, a huge crowd of Parisians captured the royal fortress called the Bastille. Louis XVI was forced to give in. By September 1791, the Assembly had drafted a new constitution that made France a constitutional, or limited, monarchy, with a one-house legislature.

The new government did not last long. In April 1792 France went to war against Austria and Prussia. These countries wished to restore the king to his former posi­tion. In the summer of 1792, as foreign armies marched on Paris, revolutionaries imprisoned Louis XVI and his family and overthrew the monarchy. A National Conven­tion, chosen through an election open to almost all adult French males, opened on Sept. 21,1792, and declared France a republic.

Civil and foreign wars pushed the new republican government to extreme and violent measures. Radical leaders such as Maximilien Robespierre gained power. They said that terror was necessary to preserve liberty. Thus, while the revolution survived under radical lead­ership, it also sentenced many "enemies of the republic" to death. Thousands of people were executed. In time, the radicals began to struggle for power among them­selves. Robespierre was condemned by his enemies and executed. His death marked the end of the period called the Reign of Terror. See Robespierre.

In 1795, a new constitution was adopted that formed a government called the Directory. The Directory, a five-man board, governed France from 1795 to 1799, during the last half of the French Revolution. For more details on the causes, violence, and reforms of the French Rev­olution, see French Revolution.

Napoleon. During the French Revolution, a young of­ficer named Napoleon Bonaparte rose through the ranks of the army. He was named a general in 1793, and his power grew rapidly. In 1799, Napoleon overthrew the revolutionary French government and seized control of France. Napoleon was an excellent administrator. He created a strong, efficient central government and re­vised and organized French law. He was also a military genius with great ambition. By 1812, Napoleon's forces had conquered most of western and central Europe. But maintaining control over this vast empire eventually overextended French power, and Napoleon was forced to give up his throne in 1814. He returned to rule France again for about three months in 1815 before his final de­feat at Waterloo. For the story of Napoleon's life and a map of his empire, see Napoleon I.

The revolutions of 1830 and 1848. The Bourbon dynasty returned to power after Napoleon's downfall. Charles X, who became king in 1824, tried to reestablish the total power of the earlier French kings. He was over­thrown in the July Revolution of 1830. See Charles (X) of France; July Revolution; Louis (XVIII).

The revolutionaries placed Louis Philippe on the throne. He belonged to the Orleans branch of the Bour­bon family. France was peaceful and prosperous during Louis Philippe's reign. But the poorer classes became dissatisfied because only the wealthy could vote or hold public office. The February Revolution of 1848 over­threw the government and established the Second Re­public. All Frenchmen received the right to vote. See Louis Philippe; Revolution of 1848.

The voters elected Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of Napoleon, to a four-year term as president in 1848. He seized greater power illegally in 1851, and de­clared himself president for 10 years. In 1852, he estab­ished the Second Empire and declared himself Em­peror Napoleon III. See Napoleon III.

The Franco-Prussian War. During the 1860's, France became alarmed over the growing strength of Prussia, France feared that a united Germany under Prussian leadership would upset Europe's balance of power.

After a series of disputes, France declared war on Prussia in 1870. Prussia defeated France the next year. In the peace treaty following the war, France was forced to give almost all of Alsace and part of Lorraine to the new German Empire. See Franco-Prussian War.

The Third Republic. After Prussian victories in 1870, the French revolted against Napoleon III. They estab­lished a provisional (temporary) republic, which became known as the Third Republic, and in 1871 elected a Na­tional Assembly. In 1875, the Assembly voted to con­tinue the republic, and wrote a new constitution.

French strength and prosperity grew until World War I began in 1914. French explorers and soldiers won a vast colonial empire in Africa and Asia. Only Great Brit­ain had a larger overseas empire. France strengthened its army, and formed a military alliance with Russia in 1894 and the Entente Cordiale (cordial understanding) with Great Britain in 1904. French industries expanded steadily, especially after 1895.

By the 1890^rs, most French people were reconciled to the Third Republic, but few were deeply committed to it. An incident known as the Dreyfus affair finally forced the nation to take sides on this issue. On Oct. 15, 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish French army officer, was ar­rested on suspicion of spying for Germany. In Decem­ber, a military court found him guilty. Evidence of his in­nocence slowly trickled out and eventually attracted much attention. Many people began to rally to Dreyfus' side. They included Socialists representing the French working class, moderate republicans, and other people with no political background.

These people believed that the French army had acted arbitrarily in convicting Dreyfus and feared that the republic was endangered. They made Dreyfus a symbol of civil liberties and republican virtues and worked to get him a new trial. Opponents of republican government and army supporters came together and denounced Dreyfus and his supporters as antipatriotic.

A fight followed that resulted in a strengthening of sup­port for the republic. In 1906, France's highest court re­viewed the Dreyfus case and declared Dreyfus innocent. See Dreyfus, Alfred.

World War I. During the early 1900s, France and Germany had disagreements over colonial territories, and each country feared an attack by the other. In 1907, France established a diplomatic agreement called the Triple Entente with Great Britain and Russia. The French prepared for war. Soon after the start of World War I (1914-1918), Germany invaded France. The Germans hoped to defeat France quickly. But by late 1914, the French army had halted the German advance. For 3½ years, the opposing forces fought from trenches that stretched across northeastern France and Belgium.

The worst fighting faced by the French army during the war took place around the city of Verdun in 1916. In February, the German army launched a major attack to take Verdun. For five months, intense fighting involved hundreds of thousands of troops. At first, the Germans made rapid progress. But they were slowly rolled back. In July, the Germans halted their unsuccessful attack.

The Battle of Verdun became a symbol of France's will to resist. But the battle had also drained the country. From the middle of 1917, France's allies began handling most of the war's major battles. The war produced enor­mously high casualties, partly as a result of the destruc­tive powers of new weapons such as the machine gun and poison gas. Millions of French servicemen were killed or wounded. For more on the story of France in the war, see World War I.

Between the World Wars. In the Treaty of Ver­sailles, signed in 1919, France recovered Alsace and the German part of Lorraine from Germany. France and other Allied nations also were awarded reparations (payments for war damages) from Germany. Germany fell behind in making these payments. As a result,

French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr Valley of Germany in 1923. After Germany agreed to keep up the payments, the troops were withdrawn in 1925. See Al­sace-Lorraine; Ruhr (History); Versailles, Treaty of.

The French did much to reestablish good relations with Germany. France joined other Allied nations and Germany in the Rhineland Security Pact of 1925. This agreement in part guaranteed the security of the French-German border. France reduced Germany's rep­arations, and dropped various controls over Germany set up by the Treaty of Versailles. Suggestions by Aris­tide Briand, the French foreign minister, led to the Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact of 1928 (see Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact). It was signed by France, Germany, and 13 other countries. But in 1929, France began building the Maginot Line as a fortified defence against Germany.

During the 1930's, the worldwide economic depres­sion and the rise of fascist leader Adolf Hitler in Ger­many caused serious political unrest in France. In 1936, at a time of widespread strikes, a government called the Popular Front came to power in France. It made many promises to striking workers and tried to establish a strong position against fascism. But in 1938, the govern­ment began to give in to the demands of Nazi Germany. As part of this policy of appeasement, France signed the Munich Agreement, which forced Czechoslovakia to give territory to Germany (see Munich Agreement).

World War II began when Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1,1939. Two days later, France and Great Britain declared war on Germany. On May 10,1940, the Ger­mans attacked Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Nether­lands. They invaded France through Belgium on May 12, passing northwest of the Maginot Line. The Germans launched a major attack to the south on June 5, and en­tered Paris on June 14. On June 22, France signed an ar­mistice with Germany. The Germans occupied the north­ern two-thirds of France, and southern France remained under French control. Southern France was governed at Vichy by Marshal Henri Philippe Petain, who largely co­operated with the Germans. See Petain, Henri Philippe.

After France fell, General Charles de Gaulle fled to London. He invited all French patriots to join a move­ment called Free France, and continue fighting the Ger­mans. This resistance movement spread throughout France. Some groups of French people called Maquis hid in hilly areas and fought the Germans. After Allied troops landed in French North Africa in November 1942,

The Fourth Republic. In October 1945, the French people voted to have the National Assembly write a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic. In this elec­tion, French women voted for the first time. De Gaulle resigned as president in January 1946, over disagree­ments with the Assembly. The new constitution, much like that of the Third Republic, went into effect in October 1946. De Gaulle opposed it because it did not pro­vide strong executive powers.

France received considerable aid from the United States, and rebuilt its cities and industries, which had been badly damaged during the war. But political troubles at home and colonial revolts overseas slowed the country's economic recovery. France played an impor­tant part in the Cold War between the Communist cot tries and the Western countries (see Cold War). The Communist Party was one of the largest in France after the war, and it controlled the chief trade unions. Communist-led strikes in 1947 and 1948 crippled production across the country. But in 1949, France became a char member of the anti-Communist North Atlantic Treaty ganization (NATO).

The first revolt by a French colony began in Indochina in 1946. Indochina was eventually divided into Cambodia, Laos, and North and South Vietnam. The French withdrew from Indochina in 1954 after heavy losses.' Indochina (French Indochina).

Later in 1954, revolution broke out in the French territory of Algeria. To prevent revolutions in Morocco and Tunisia, France made them independent in 1956. Other French colonies in Africa received independence later. But France refused to give up Algeria, the home of a most a million French settlers. France gradually built its army in Algeria to about 500,000 men, and the war continued throughout the 1950's. See Algeria (The Algerian Revolution).

In spite of the costly colonial wars, France's economic grew rapidly. By the late 1950's, it had broken all French production records. The boom developed with U.S. and a series of national economic plans begun in 19 French businessmen and government officials were terminated to prove that France's greatness had not disappeared. Between 1947 and 1958, France helped form several economic organizations that were important steps toward a European confederation. For discus; of these organizations, see Europe, Council of; European Union.

The Fifth Republic. By 1958, large numbers of French people thought it was useless to continue fighting in Algeria. But the idea of giving up Algeria angered many French army leaders and settlers in the colony. They rebelled in May 1958 and threatened to overthrow the French government by force unless it continue fighting. In a compromise solution, de Gaulle was called back to power as prime minister, with emergency powers for six months. His government prepared a new institution, which the voters approved on Sept. 28, 1058.

This constitution, which established the Fifth Republic gave the president greater power than ever before sharply reduced the power of Parliament. In December the Electoral College elected de Gaulle to a seven- term as president.

France under de Gaulle. De Gaulle's government continued the war in Algeria, hoping the Algerian would agree to a compromise settlement that provided some French control. By 1961, however, the government realized that only Algerian independence would end the rebellion. Peace talks began in 1961 and ended with a cease fire in March 1962. At de Gaulle's urging, French voters approved Algerian independence in April. Alge­ria became independent on July 3, 1962, and most French settlers there returned to France.

Algerian independence set off a wave of bombings _and murders in France and Algeria by the Secret Army Organization (OAS). This group, which included many army officers, accused de Gaulle of betraying France by ending the war. The OAS tried several times to kill de Gaulle. Its leaders were eventually captured and sentenced to terms of imprisonment.

After the Algerian crisis, some French politicians tried to weaken de Gaulle's strong rule. They wanted to re­establish the former power of Parliament and reduce that of the president. But de Gaulle made the presidency even stronger. Fie declared that the president should have nationwide support and be elected by the people, not by the Electoral College. In 1962, the voters ap­proved a constitutional amendment that provided for such elections.

De Gaulle was reelected to a second seven-year term in 1965. French foreign policy became his main interest. De Gaulle declared that the French were "a race created for brilliant deeds," but that they could not achieve greatness with their "destiny in the hands of foreigners." He hoped to make France the leader of an alliance of Western European countries. This alliance would be free of U.S. or Soviet influence. Instead of relying on American protection through NATO, de Gaulle devel­oped an independent French nuclear-weapons pro­gramme. In 1966, de Gaulle removed all French troops from NATO. Fie also declared that all NATO military bases and troops had to be removed from France by April 1967. France withdrew from NATO militarily, but it remained a member politically.

In 1957, France and other Western European nations formed the European Community, also called the Euro­pean Common Market. De Gaulle believed France could work within this economic organization to become stronger and more influential in Western Europe. In 1963, he prevented Great Britain from joining the Com­mon Market. He considered Britain a rival for leadership in Western Europe. He also believed Britain's ties with the United States would give America too much influ­ence on Europe's economy.

In the late 1960's, many French people became dis­satisfied with de Gaulle's government. This dissatisfac­tion led to a severe national crisis in May 1968. Students staged demonstrations in Paris, some of which erupted into violent clashes with the police. Demonstrations, many accompanied by violence, spread throughout France, and millions of workers joined in by going on strike. The country was paralysed for more than two weeks, and many people expected the overthrow of de Gaulle's government and possible civil war. But de Gaulle managed to bring the situation under control by the end of May. He called a general election in June, and his supporters won more than 70 per cent of the seats in Parliament. However, de Gaulle's reputation as a leader had been seriously damaged by what the French called the "events of May." In April 1969, de Gaulle asked for minor constitutional reforms and said he would resign if the voters did not approve them. The French people voted against the reforms, and de Gaulle resigned.

France after de Gaulle. Georges Pompidou was elected president in June 1969. He had been de Gaulle's prime minister, and he promised to continue de Gaulle's policies. But Pompidou changed de Gaulle's foreign pol icy by cooperating more closely with the United States. He also improved relations with Great Britain. In 1971, Pompidou and British Prime Minister Edward Heath agreed on Britain's entry into the Common Market.

At home, Pompidou's government faced economic problems. The country's industrial growth began to slow down, unemployment increased, and inflation rose to a high level. Part of the economic trouble resulted from the worldwide oil crisis in 1973. Oil-producing countries raised the price of oil sharply, and France was seriously affected because it imports most of its petroleum.

Pompidou died in April 1974. The Gaullist Party, which had supported de Gaulle and Pompidou, split into a number of separate groups in the presidential election that followed in May. These groups supported various candidates. As a result, the Gaullist Party was weakened. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, head of the Inde­pendent Republican Party, was elected president.

The Gaullists and a group of parties that supported Giscard won a majority of the seats in French parliamen­tary elections held in 1978. Those parties formed a coali­tion government. The leftist Socialist and Communist parties were their main opponents.

The loss of most of its colonial empire has relieved France of the cost of governing and developing the col­onies. However, France still gives economic, technical, and military aid to many of its former colonies.

Recent developments. Politically, France moved sharply to the left in 1981. The voters elected Francois Mitterrand of the Socialist Party as president. In addi­tion, the Socialists won a majority of the seats in parlia­mentary elections held in 1981. The elections gave France its first leftist government since 1958. Moderates and conservatives had controlled all the governments since then. Under the moderates and conservatives, the government owned some French businesses. The new Socialist leaders greatly increased government owner ship of businesses.

From the time of Napoleon I, France's departments were administered by prefects—officials appointed by, and responsible to, the national government. But the socialist government gave locally elected councils responsibility for the departments. In 1982, the government changed the title prefect to commissioner.

The 1981 elections resulted in a sharp decline in the number of parliamentary seats held by Communists, the Communists had supported Mitterrand in the presidential race. He appointed Communists to four minor posts in the 44-member cabinet, marking the first Communist participation in the cabinet since 1947. In 1984 the Communists resigned after disagreements with the government over economic policies.

The Socialists lost their parliamentary majority in the 1986 elections. Conservatives gained control of parliament. Mitterrand remained president, but he named Jacques Chirac, a conservative, as prime minister. Chirac gained much influence in the government. In the 1981 elections, Mitterrand waged a successful campaign against Chirac and won a second term as president. Shortly after his election, Mitterrand dissolved the National Assembly. In new legislative elections, the Socialists and their allies won a slight majority. As a result, in 1988, Mitterrand appointed Michel Rocard, a Socialist to replace Jacques Chirac as prime minister. Rocard's government followed social and economic policies quite similar to those favoured by moderates and conservatives. Rocard resigned in 1991 and was replaced the former European affairs minister, Edith Cresson. She became France's first woman prime minister. However, she was an unpopular choice, and she resigned in 1992. She was succeeded by Pierre Beregovoy.

The general election held in March 1993 resulted in an overwhelming victory for the conservatives. The Gaullist RPR party and the centre-right Union for French Democracy (UDFI together took 484 seats in the 577-seat French parliament. Socialist representation was reduced to 70 seats. Former finance minister Edouard Balladu Gaullist, succeeded Beregovoy as prime minister. Mitterrand's term of office ended in 1995, and RPR candidate Jacques Chirac was elected president. Chirac appointed Alain Juppe, of the RPR, prime minister.

Like all modern countries, France has economic and social problems that remain unsolved. Large number immigrants from Africa and southern Europe live in crowded city slums and in large apartment blocks or the outskirts of cities. Elderly people on fixed income and farmers whose farms are too small to modernize barely manage to make ends meet in times of inflation. Unemployment is a major problem. Young people suffered from unemployment more than any other group.

Despite its economic problems, however, France’s overall standard of living is higher today than ever before. Most French people own such material goods as cars, refrigerators, telephones, and washing machines. Social security laws give workers some protection against unemployment, illness, and old age.

France ranks among the world leaders in total indus­trial production and in the export of agricultural prod­ucts. Nuclear power plants are being built to relieve France from dependence on imported fuels. The army has been modernized, and France has its own nuclear weapons.

Outlines:

Government: National government, local government, politics, courts, and armed forces.

People: Population, ancestry, and language.

Way of life: City life, rural life, food and drink, recreation, holidays, religion, education, museum and libraries.

Arts: The Middle Ages, The Renaissance, Baroque and rococo art, French classical art, The age of reason, Romanticism, Realism and neutralism, Impressionism, and The 1900’s

The land

Climate

Economy: Natural resources, service industries, manufacturing, agriculture, forestry, mining, fishing, energy sources, foreign trade, transportation, and communication.

History.

Questions

What major changes in French government were made by Charles de Gaulle?

How did France get its name?

What is the principal religion of France?

How did the Romans influence French ways of life?

What is France's chief crop? What is France's chief mineral de­posit?

Who seized control after the French Revolution?

What are French secondary schools called?

What led to De Gaulle's return to power in 1958?

What is France's cultural and economic centre?

How does France rank in foreign trade?

French Revolution

Destruction of the Symbols of the Monarchy, Place de la Concorde, August JO, 1793, an oil painting on canvas by Pierre-Antoine Demachy; Musee Carnavalet, Paris.

Hatred of the monarchy in France increased because of King Louis XVI's efforts to end the revolution. Louis was exe­cuted on Jan. 21, 1793, and the revolution became more ex­treme. About seven months later, a crowd in Paris burned a crown and a throne that had belonged to the king.

The Death of Marat i1793), an oil painting on canvas by Jacques Louis David; The Royal Museum of Fine Arts, Brussels, Belgium.

The death of Marat spurred on the Reign of Terror. Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, fatally stabbed the Jacobin leader while he took a bath.

French Revolution brought about great changes in the society and government of France. The revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, also had far-reaching ef­fects on the rest of Europe. It introduced democratic ideals to France but did not make the nation a democ­racy. However, it ended supreme rule by French kings and strengthened the middle class. After the revolution began, no European kings, nobles, or other privileged groups could ever again take their powers for granted or ignore the ideals of liberty and equality.

The revolution began with a government financial cri­sis but quickly became a movement of reform and vio­lent change. In one of the early events, a crowd in Paris captured the Bastille, a royal fortress and prison, which had become a symbol of oppression. A series of elected legislatures then took control of the government. King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were executed. Thousands of others met the same fate in a period called the Reign of Terror. The revolution ended when Napoleon Bonaparte, a French general, took over the government.

Background. Various social, political, and economic conditions led to the revolution in France. These condi­tions included much dissatisfaction among the lower and middle classes, interest in new ideas about govern­ment, and financial problems caused by the costs of wars.

Legal divisions among social groups that had existed for hundreds of years created much discontent. Accord­ing to the law, French society consisted of three groups called estates. Members of the clergy made up the first estate, nobles the second, and the rest of the people the third. The peasants, who earned very little, formed the largest group in the third estate. The third estate also in­cluded the working people of the cities and a large and prosperous middle class made up chiefly of merchants, lawyers, and government officials.

The third estate resented certain advantages of the first two estates. The clergy and nobles did not have to pay most taxes. The third estate had to provide almost all the country's tax revenue. Many members of the mid­dle class were also troubled by their social status. They were among the most economically important people in French society but were not recognized as such be­cause they belonged to the third estate.

The new ideas about government challenged France's absplute monarchy. Under this system, the king had al­most unlimited authority. Fie governed by divine right— that is, the monarch's right to rule was thought to come from God. There were checks on the king, but these came mainly from a few groups of aristocrats in the par- lements (high courts). During the 1700s, French writers called philosophes and philosophers from other coun­tries raised new ideas about freedom. Some of these

thinkers, including Jean Jacques Rousseau, suggested that the right to govern came from the people.

The financial crisis developed because France had gone deeply into debt to finance fighting in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) and the American Revolution (1775-1783). By 1788, the government was almost bank­rupt. The Parlement of Paris insisted that King Louis XVI could borrow more money or raise taxes only by calling a meeting of the Estates-Ceneral. This body, also called States-Ceneral, was made up of representatives of the three estates, and had last met in 1614. Unwillingly, the king called the meeting.

The revolution begins. The States-General opened on May 5,1789, at Versailles, near Paris. Most members of the first two estates wanted each of the three estates to take up matters and vote on them separately by es­tate. The third estate had as many representatives as the other two estates combined. It insisted that all the es­tates be merged into one national assembly and that each representative have one vote. The third estate also wanted the States-General to write a constitution.

The king and the first two estates refused the de­mands of the third estate. In June 1789, the representa­tives of the third estate declared themselves the Na­tional Assembly of France. They gathered at a tennis court and pledged not to disband until they had written a constitution. This vow became known as the Oath of the Tennis Court. Louis XVI then allowed the three es­tates to join together as the National Assembly. But he began to gather troops around Paris to break up the As­sembly.

Meanwhile, the masses of France also took action. On July 14,1789, a huge crowd of Parisians rushed to the Bastille. They believed they would find arms and ammu­nition there for use in defending themselves against the king's army. The people captured the Bastille and began to tear it down. At the same time, leaders in Paris formed a revolutionary city government. Massive peas­ant uprisings against nobles also broke out in the coun­tryside. A few nobles decided to flee France, and many more followed during the next five years. These people

were called emigres because they emigrated. The upris­ings in town and countryside saved the National Assem­bly from being disbanded by the king.

The National Assembly. In August 1789, the Assem­bly adopted the Decrees of August 4 and the Declara­tion of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The decrees abolished some feudal dues that the peasants owed their landlords, the tax advantages of the clergy and no­bles, and regional privileges. The declaration guaran­teed the same basic rights to all citizens, including "lib­erty, property, security, and resistance to oppression," as well as representative government.

The Assembly later drafted a constitution that made France a limited monarchy with a one-house legislature. France was divided into 83 regions called departments, each with elected councils for local government. But the right to vote and hold public office was limited to citi­zens who paid a certain amount in taxes.

The Assembly seized the property of the Roman Cath­olic Church. The church lands amounted to about a tenth of the country's land. Much of the church land was sold to rich peasants and members of the middle class. Money from the land sales was used to pay some of the nation's huge debt. The Assembly then reorganized the Catholic Church in France, required the election of priests and bishops by the voters, and closed the Church's monasteries and convents. Complete religious tolerance was extended to Protestants and Jews. The As­sembly also reformed the court system by requiring the election of judges. By September 1791, the National As­sembly believed that the revolution was over. It dis­banded at the end of the month to make way for the newly elected Legislative Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly. The new Assembly, made up mainly of representatives of the middle class, opened on Oct. 1,1791. It soon faced several challenges. The government's stability depended on cooperation between the king and the legislature. But Louis XVI re­mained opposed to the revolution. He asked other rul­ers for help in stopping it, and plotted with aristocrats and emigres to overthrow the new government. In addi­tion, public opinion became bitterly divided. The revolu­tion's religious policy angered many Catholics. Other people demanded stronger measures against oppo­nents of the revolution.

The new government also faced a foreign threat. In April 1792, it went to war against Austria and Prussia. These countries wished to restore the powers of the king and emigres. The foreign armies defeated French forces in the early fighting and invaded France. Louis XVI and his supporters clearly hoped for the victory of the invaders. As a result, angry revolutionaries in Paris and other areas demanded that the king be dethroned.

In August 1792, the people of Paris imprisoned Louis XV! and his family. Louis's removal ended the constitu­tional monarchy. The Assembly then called fora Na­tional Convention to be elected on the basis of universal adult male suffrage, and for a new constitution.

Meanwhile, French armies suffered more military de­feats. Parisians feared that the invading armies would soon reach the city. Parisians also feared an uprising by the large number of people in the city's prisons. In the first week of September, small numbers of Parisians took the law into their own hands and executed more than 1,000 prisoners. These executions, called the Sep­tember Massacres, turned many people in France and Europe against the revolution. A victory by the French Army at Valmy on September 20 helped end the crisis.

The National Convention. The king's removal led to a new stage in the revolution. The first stage had been a liberal middle-class reform movement based on a con­stitutional monarchy. The second stage was organized around principles of democracy. The National Conven­tion, chosen through an election open to nearly all adult French males, opened on Sept. 21,1792, and declared France a republic. The republic's official slogan was "Lib­erty, Equality, Fraternity."

Louis XVI was placed on trial for betraying the coun­try. The National Convention found him guilty of trea­son, and a slim majority voted for the death penalty. The king was beheaded on the guillotine on Jan. 21,1793.

The revolution gradually grew more radical—that is, more open to extreme and violent change. Radical lead­ers came into prominence. In the Convention, they were known as the Mountain because they sat on the high benches at the rear of the hall. Leaders of the Mountain were Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Jacques Danton, and Jean Paul Marat. Their bitter opponents were known as the Gironde because several came from a department of that name. The majority of the deputies in the Con­vention was known as the Plain. The Mountain domi­nated a powerful political club called the Jacobin Club.

Growing disputes between the Mountain and the Gi­ronde led to a struggle for power, and the Mountain won. In June 1793, the Convention expelled and arrested the leading Girondists. In turn, the Girondists' support­ers rebelled against the Convention. Charlotte Corday, a Girondist sympathizer, assassinated Jean Paul Marat in July 1793. In time, the Convention's forces defeated the Girondists' supporters. The Jacobin leaders created a new citizens' army to fight rebellion in France and a war against other European countries. Compulsory military service provided the troops, and rapid promotion of tal­ented soldiers provided the leadership for this strong army.

Terror and equality. The Jacobin government was both dictatorial and democratic. It was dictatorial be­cause it suspended civil rights and political freedom during the emergency. The Convention's Committee of Public Safety took over actual rule of France, controlling local governments, the armed forces, and other institu­tions.

The committee governed during the most terrible pe­riod of the revolution. Its leaders included Robespierre, Lazare Carnot, and Bertrand Barere. The Convention de­clared a policy of terror against rebels, supporters of the king or the Gironde, and anyone else who publicly disagreed with official policy.

In time, hundreds of thousands of suspects filled the nation's jails. Courts handed down about 18,000 death sentences in what was called the Reign of Terror. Paris became accustomed to the rattle of two-wheeled carts called tumbrels as they carried people to the guillotine. Victims of this period included Marie Antoinette, widow of Louis XVI.

The Jacobins, however, also followed democratic principles and extended the benefits of the revolution beyond the middle class. Shopkeepers, peasants, and other workers actively participated in political life for the first time. The Convention authorized public assist­ance for the poor, free primary education for boys and girls, price controls to protect consumers from rapid in­flation, and taxes based on income. It also called for the abolition of slavery in France's colonies. Most of these reforms, however, were never fully carried out because of later changes in the government.

The revolution ends. In time, the radicals began to struggle for power among themselves. Robespierre suc­ceeded in having Danton and other former leaders exe­cuted. Many people in France wished to end the Reign of Terror, the Jacobin dictatorship, and the democratic revolution. Robespierre's enemies in the Convention fi­nally attacked him as a tyrant on July 27 (9 Thermidor by the new French calendar), 1794. He was executed the next day. The Reign of Terror ended after Robespierre's death. Conservatives gained control of the Convention and drove the Jacobins from power. Most of the demo­cratic reforms of the past two years were quickly abol­ished in what became known as the Thermidorian Reac­tion.

The Convention, which had adopted a democratic constitution in 1793, replaced that document with a new one in 1795. The government formed under this consti­tution was called the Directory, referring to the five-man executive directory that governed along with a two- house legislature. France was still a republic, but once again only citizens who paid a certain amount in taxes could vote.

Meanwhile, France was winning victories on the bat­tlefield. French armies had pushed back the invaders and crossed into Belgium, Germany, and Italy.

The Directory began meeting in October 1795. But it was troubled by war, economic problems, and opposi­tion from supporters of monarchy and former Jacobins. In October 1799, a number of political leaders plotted to overthrow the Directory. They needed military support and turned to Napoleon Bonaparte, a French general who had become a hero in a military campaign in Italy in 1796 and 1797. Bonaparte seized control of the gov­ernment on Nov. 9 (18 Brumaire in the revolutionary cal­endar), 1799, ending the revolution.

The French Revolution brought France into opposi­tion with much of Europe. The monarchs who ruled the other countries feared the spread of democratic ideals. The revolution left the French people in extreme dis­agreement about the best form of government for their country. By 1799, most were probably weary of political conflict altogether. But the revolution created the long- lasting foundations for a unified state, a strong central government, and a free society dominated by the mid­dle class and the landowners.

Related articles:

Biographies

Corday, Charlotte

Danton, Georges Jacques

Du Barry, Madame

Lafayette, Marquis de

Louis (XVI)

Marat, Jean Paul

Marie Antoinette

Mirabeau, Comte de

Napoleon I

Robespierre

Roland de la Platiere, M. J.

Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph

Talleyrand

Background and causes

Bastille

Divine right of kings

Estates-General

Rights of Man, Declaration of the Rousseau, Jean J.

Versailles

The revolution

Emigres

Girondiss

Guillotine

Jacobins

Marseillaise

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